Translation: When the Tao prevails in the world, war horses are sent back to fertilize the fields.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. In a peaceful and well-governed era, there is no need for war; war horses are retired and returned to farmland—weapons are beaten into plowshares, and war horses become draft horses. This is Laozi's depiction of an ideal society: no war, no expansion, everyone dwelling in peace and contentment. Wang Bi (王弼) comments: "天下有道，知足知止，无求于外，各修其内而已，故却走马以治田粪也" — "When the Tao prevails in the world, people know contentment and know when to stop, seek nothing externally, and each cultivates what is within—thus war horses are sent back to work the fields and spread manure." The fundamental principle of an era with the Tao lies in "knowing contentment and knowing when to stop."
Similar views: Wang Bi: "天下有道，知足知止，无求于外，各修其内而已，故却走马以治田粪也" — "When the Tao prevails in the world, people know contentment and know when to stop, seek nothing externally, and each cultivates what is within—thus war horses are sent back to work the fields and spread manure."
Translation: When the Tao prevails in the world, war horses are retired for farming; (metaphorically, the practitioner of self-cultivation conserves vital essence to nourish the body.)
Analysis: Heshang Gong's distinctive self-cultivation interpretation: "兵甲不用，却走马治农田，治身者却阳精以粪其身" — "Weapons and armor are not used, war horses are sent back to work the farmland; the one who cultivates the body conserves yang essence to nourish the self." This is not merely a political metaphor but also a metaphor for self-cultivation: "conserving yang essence to nourish the body" refers to preserving vital Qi (气) without dissipation, thereby nourishing oneself. This interpretation is an early expression of Daoist cultivation thought.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "兵甲不用，却走马治农田，治身者却阳精以粪其身" — "Weapons and armor are not used, war horses are sent back to work the farmland; the one who cultivates the body conserves yang essence to nourish the self."
Translation: When the Tao is absent from the world, war horses breed and are stationed in the borderlands.
Analysis: This forms a stark contrast with the preceding sentence. In an era with the Tao, war horses return to the fields; in an era without the Tao, war horses breed on the frontier—indicating that warfare drags on so long that even mares give birth to foals on the battlefield. Heshang Gong comments: "战伐不止，戎马生于郊境之上，久不还也" — "Campaigns never cease; war horses breed on the frontier borders, long unable to return." War persists until mares bear foals at the front lines—how devastating. Wang Bi (王弼) comments: "贪欲无厌，不修其内，各求于外，故戎马生于郊也" — "Greed and desire are insatiable; people do not cultivate what is within but each seeks externally—thus war horses breed on the frontier." The root cause is "insatiable greed and desire."
Similar views: Wang Bi: "贪欲无厌，不修其内，各求于外，故戎马生于郊也" — "Greed and desire are insatiable; people do not cultivate what is within but each seeks externally—thus war horses breed on the frontier." Heshang Gong: "战伐不止，戎马生于郊境之上，久不还也" — "Campaigns never cease; war horses breed on the frontier borders, long unable to return."
Translation: No calamity is greater than not knowing contentment.
Analysis: This traces the root cause of "the world without the Tao" to "not knowing contentment"—the source of all war and chaos is insatiable desire. Heshang Gong comments: "富贵不能自禁止也" — "Even in wealth and high status, one cannot restrain oneself." Being unable to exercise self-restraint even after achieving wealth and honor—this is the greatest source of calamity. This sentence echoes Chapter 44: "知足不辱" ("He who knows contentment avoids disgrace").
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "富贵不能自禁止也" — "Even in wealth and high status, one cannot restrain oneself." Chapter 44: "知足不辱" ("He who knows contentment avoids disgrace").
Translation: No fault is greater than the desire to acquire.
Analysis: This forms a progression with the preceding sentence, "No calamity is greater than not knowing contentment." "Not knowing contentment" is a state of mind, while "the desire to acquire" is action—discontent drives one to ceaselessly pursue and seize, which in turn produces conflict and the calamity of war. Heshang Gong comments: "欲得人物，利且贪也" — "Desiring to obtain others' possessions, being both profit-seeking and greedy." Coveting what belongs to others, being both grasping and avaricious—this is the root of all faults.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "欲得人物，利且贪也" — "Desiring to obtain others' possessions, being both profit-seeking and greedy."
Translation: Thus, the contentment that comes from knowing sufficiency is eternal contentment.
Analysis: The concluding statement of the entire chapter, and one of the most essential life wisdoms in the whole book. "知足之足" employs a double layer of "足" (sufficiency/contentment), and its meaning is exquisite: it does not refer to the pursuit of external "sufficiency" (material plenitude), but rather to the inner awareness of "knowing contentment"—knowing that contentment itself is sufficiency. This kind of contentment does not depend on external conditions, and therefore it is "常足"—eternally unchanged. Heshang Gong's commentary is minimalist yet profound: "守真根也" ("Guard the true root") and "无欲心也" ("A heart free of desire"). Guard one's authentic nature, free of desire and craving, and one attains everlasting contentment.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "守真根也" — "Guard the true root." "无欲心也" — "A heart free of desire." Chapter 33: "知足者富" ("He who knows contentment is rich"). Chapter 44: "知足不辱" ("He who knows contentment avoids disgrace").
Translation: Thus, the sense of fulfillment that arises from knowing contentment is the only lasting abundance.
Analysis: External abundance always reaches its limit—wealth can be lost, power can be stripped away—but the inner awareness of contentment never vanishes. "常足" does not mean "always having enough materially," but rather "eternally feeling that one has enough" on a spiritual level. This is a thoroughgoing freedom—no longer driven by desire, no longer tormented by the feeling of lack.
Similar views: Resonates with the Buddhist concept of "少欲知足" (few desires and knowing contentment).
This chapter contains 7 interpretation combinations.
[Core Divergences]
Chapter 46 uses war horses as a metaphor to present a stark contrast between an era with the Tao and an era without it: in an era with the Tao, war horses return to the fields (peace); in an era without the Tao, war horses breed on the frontier (war). It then points directly to the root causes of an era without the Tao—not knowing contentment and the desire to acquire. Finally, it closes the chapter with "the contentment that comes from knowing sufficiency is lasting contentment," offering the ultimate remedy. This chapter forms a companion piece with Chapter 44 ("He who knows contentment avoids disgrace"), extending from the personal level (Chapter 44) to the level of all-under-Heaven (Chapter 46): when an individual does not know contentment, the self is harmed; when all-under-Heaven does not know contentment, armies march. The chapter's structure is concise and powerful: contrasting phenomena → root cause analysis → solution.