Translation: One who is skilled at walking leaves behind no wheel ruts or footprints.
Analysis: The surface meaning. One who is skilled at walking treads so lightly that no traces remain. This is a metaphor for masterful conduct that leaves no loose ends or vulnerabilities. Wang Bi's commentary: "顺自然而行，不造不始，故物得至而无辙迹也" — "One who acts in accordance with nature, neither contriving nor initiating, allows things to reach their fulfillment without leaving ruts or tracks." The key lies in "acting in accordance with nature": without deliberate contrivance, things accomplish themselves naturally, leaving no trace behind.
Similar views: Wang Bi: "顺自然而行，不造不始，故物得至而无辙迹也" — "One who acts in accordance with nature, neither contriving nor initiating, allows things to reach their fulfillment without leaving ruts or tracks."
Translation: One who is skilled at practicing the Tao (道) leaves behind no traces.
Analysis: Heshang Gong interprets "行" as "practicing the Tao" — cultivating the great Way. One who is skilled at cultivating the Tao "求之于身，不下堂，不出门" (seeks it within himself, never descending the hall, never going out the gate), working upon himself, and so naturally leaves no footprints in the external world. This reading elevates "善行" from everyday conduct to the realm of spiritual cultivation.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "善行道者求之于身，不下堂，不出门，故无辙迹" — "One who is skilled at practicing the Tao seeks it within himself, never descending the hall, never going out the gate — hence no ruts or tracks." Chapter 47: "不出户，知天下" — "Without going out the door, one knows the world."
Translation: Perfect conduct leaves no trace.
Analysis: Here "善" takes the meaning of "perfect," and "行" that of "conduct" or "action." The most consummate way of doing things is to leave no mark — the deed is accomplished, yet others may not even know it was done. This reading echoes Chapter 17: "太上，不知有之" — "Of the best rulers, the people do not know they exist."
Similar views: Chapter 17: "太上，不知有之" — "Of the best rulers, the people do not know they exist." "功成事遂，百姓皆谓我自然" — "When the work is done and affairs proceed, the common people all say, 'We did it ourselves.'"
Translation: One who is skilled at speaking leaves no blemishes or faults.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. One who is skilled at speaking is so thoroughly rounded in expression that no flaw can be found to criticize. Wang Bi's commentary: "顺物之性，不别不析，故无瑕讁可得其门也" — "Following the nature of things, neither discriminating nor dissecting, there is no gate through which blemish or blame can enter." The key lies in "neither discriminating nor dissecting": by not splitting things apart for analysis and judgment, one naturally avoids saying anything wrong. This reading implies the deeper meaning of speaking sparingly yet precisely, and in accordance with nature.
Similar views: Wang Bi: "顺物之性，不别不析，故无瑕讁可得其门也" — "Following the nature of things, neither discriminating nor dissecting, there is no gate through which blemish or blame can enter."
Translation: One who is skilled at speaking incurs no censure.
Analysis: Here "讁" takes the meaning of "censure" or "reproach." Heshang Gong's commentary: "择言而出之，则无瑕疵讁过于天下" — "Choosing one's words carefully before uttering them, one incurs no blemish, fault, or transgression in the realm." The key to skillful speech lies in "choosing" — selecting the appropriate occasion, setting, and audience. By speaking with deliberation, one naturally avoids being censured.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "善言谓择言而出之，则无瑕疵讁过于天下" — "Skillful speech means choosing one's words before uttering them; then one incurs no blemish, fault, or transgression in the realm."
Translation: One who is skilled at calculating has no need for counting rods or tallies.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. One who is skilled at calculation can compute mentally with divine precision, needing no external instruments. This is a metaphor for the person of the Tao (道) who has so thorough an understanding of the principles of things that he requires no elaborate methods or tools. Wang Bi's commentary is terse yet profound: "因物之数不假形也" — "He relies on the inherent numbers of things themselves and has no need to borrow external forms."
Similar views: Wang Bi: "因物之数不假形也" — "He relies on the inherent numbers of things themselves and has no need to borrow external forms."
Translation: One who is skilled at grasping the patterns of heaven requires no stratagems or calculations.
Analysis: Here "数" takes the meaning of "heavenly patterns" or "natural laws," and "策" that of "stratagems." One who has penetrated the operating principles of the cosmos needs no clever contrivances to manage affairs — because he acts in accordance with the natural order, everything falls naturally into place. Heshang Gong: "善以道计事者，则守一不移，所计不多，则不用筹策而可知也" — "One who is skilled at reckoning affairs through the Tao holds fast to the One and does not waver; what he needs to calculate is not much, so he can know without counting rods."
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "善以道计事者，则守一不移" — "One who is skilled at reckoning affairs through the Tao holds fast to the One and does not waver."
Translation: One who is skilled at closing uses no bolt or bar, yet what he closes cannot be opened; one who is skilled at binding uses no rope or cord, yet what he binds cannot be loosened.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. Together with the preceding three lines, these form a series of five "one who is skilled at…" parallel statements. One who is skilled at closing does not rely on physical instruments (bolts), and one who is skilled at binding does not rely on physical tools (ropes), yet the result is more secure than if such devices had been employed. Wang Bi summarizes the core idea behind all five sentences: "此五者皆言不造不施，因物之性，不以形制物也" — "All five statements say that one does not contrive or impose, but acts in accordance with the nature of things, and does not use external forms to control things."
Similar views: Wang Bi: "因物自然，不设不施，故不用关楗绳约而不可开解也。此五者皆言不造不施，因物之性，不以形制物也" — "In accordance with the nature of things, without designing or imposing, he uses neither bolt nor rope, yet nothing can be opened or loosened. All five statements say that one does not contrive or impose, but acts in accordance with the nature of things, and does not use external forms to control things."
Translation: One who is skilled at closing off (desires) uses no bolt or bar, yet what he closes cannot be opened; one who is skilled at binding (hearts) uses no rope or cord, yet what he binds cannot be loosened.
Analysis: Heshang Gong reads this from the perspective of spiritual cultivation: "善以道闭情欲、守精神者，不如门户有关楗可得开" — "One who is skilled at using the Tao to close off desires and preserve the spirit does so in a way that, unlike a door with a bolt, cannot be opened." "善以道结事者，乃可结其心，不如绳索可得解也" — "One who is skilled at using the Tao to bind affairs can bind the heart; unlike rope or cord, what he binds cannot be loosened." Closing off desires relies on the inner power of the Tao rather than external coercion; binding the hearts of others relies on sincerity rather than formal constraints.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "善以道闭情欲、守精神者" — "One who is skilled at using the Tao to close off desires and preserve the spirit." "善以道结事者，乃可结其心" — "One who is skilled at using the Tao to bind affairs can bind the heart."
Translation: Therefore the Sage (圣人) is always skilled at saving people, and so no one is abandoned.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. The Sage (圣人) does not give up on anyone — because in the eyes of the Sage, every person has value and merit. "No one is abandoned" reflects the breadth of the Sage's vision and magnanimity. Wang Bi's commentary profoundly reveals the reason: "圣人不立形名以检于物，不造进向以殊弃不肖" — "The Sage does not establish formal categories to sort people, nor does he create distinctions of advancement and direction to single out and discard the unworthy." He "assists the natural tendencies of the myriad things without initiating" (辅万物之自然而不为始).
Similar views: Wang Bi: "圣人不立形名以检于物，不造进向以殊弃不肖，辅万物之自然而不为始，故曰无弃人也" — "The Sage does not establish formal categories to sort people, nor does he create distinctions to single out and discard the unworthy. He assists the natural tendencies of the myriad things without initiating — hence it is said that no one is abandoned."
Translation: Therefore the Sage (圣人) is always skilled at educating people, and so no one is abandoned.
Analysis: Here "救" takes the meaning of "to educate" or "to transform through teaching." Heshang Gong's commentary: "圣人所以常教人忠孝者，欲以救人性命" — "The reason the Sage always teaches people loyalty and filial piety is to save their natures and their lives." The Sage's "saving" is not material rescue but spiritual edification. Through such edification, every person can find his proper place: "使贵贱各得其所" (causing both the noble and the humble to find their proper stations).
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "圣人所以常教人忠孝者，欲以救人性命" — "The reason the Sage always teaches people loyalty and filial piety is to save their natures and their lives." "使贵贱各得其所也" — "Causing both the noble and the humble to find their proper stations."
Translation: Therefore the Sage (圣人) is always skilled at bringing out the best in people, and so no one is abandoned.
Analysis: Here "救" takes the meaning of "to assist" or "to bring to fulfillment." The Sage does not condescendingly "rescue" others, but assists each person in realizing his natural endowment. Wang Bi's commentary particularly emphasizes the logic of governance through non-action (无为): "不尚贤能，则民不争；不贵难得之货，则民不为盗；不见可欲，则民心不乱。常使民心无欲无惑，则无弃人矣" — "If worthies are not exalted, the people will not contend; if rare goods are not prized, the people will not steal; if objects of desire are not displayed, the people's hearts will not be confused. When the people's hearts are always free from desire and delusion, then there are no abandoned people." It is not that the Sage actively rescues each person, but that through governance by non-action he creates an environment in which no one is abandoned.
Similar views: Wang Bi: "常使民心无欲无惑，则无弃人矣" — "When the people's hearts are always free from desire and delusion, then there are no abandoned people."
Translation: He is always skilled at making use of all things, and so nothing is wasted.
Analysis: This forms a parallel with "no one is abandoned" in the preceding sentence. In the eyes of the Sage (圣人), nothing in the world is useless — everything has its proper place and value. This idea resonates with Zhuangzi's notion of "the usefulness of uselessness." Heshang Gong's commentary: "圣人不贱名而贵玉，视之如一" — "The Sage does not despise the plain while prizing jade; he regards them as equal."
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "圣人不贱名而贵玉视之如一" — "The Sage does not despise the plain while prizing jade; he regards them as equal."
Translation: He is always skilled at letting all things find their proper place, and so nothing is wasted.
Analysis: Heshang Gong: "圣人所以常教民顺四时者，欲以救万物之残伤" — "The reason the Sage always teaches the people to follow the four seasons is to save the myriad things from damage and harm." This reading understands "saving things" in an ecological sense — protection and rational use. Every form of existence has its ecological niche; what matters is whether humans know how to follow nature's arrangement.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "圣人所以常教民顺四时者，欲以救万物之残伤" — "The reason the Sage always teaches the people to follow the four seasons is to save the myriad things from damage and harm."
Translation: This is what is called the light held within.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. "袭明" is a concept unique to Laozi — light that is not displayed outwardly, wisdom harbored within the heart. This is consistent with Chapter 58: "是以圣人方而不割，廉而不刿，直而不肆，光而不耀" — "Therefore the Sage is square but does not cut, angular but does not chafe, straight but does not extend, bright but does not dazzle." True wisdom is not showy cleverness but deep, concealed awareness.
Similar views: Chapter 58: "光而不耀" — "Bright but does not dazzle." Chapter 52: "用其光，复归其明" — "Use its light and return to its illumination."
Translation: This is what is called inheriting the illumination of the great Tao (道).
Analysis: Heshang Gong's commentary: "圣人善救人物，是谓袭明大道" — "The Sage being skilled at saving people and things — this is called inheriting the illumination of the great Tao." Here "袭" takes the meaning of "to inherit" or "to carry on." The Sage's skill at saving people and things is a manifestation of his inheriting the luminosity of the Tao. This reading understands "袭明" as a relationship of transmission: the Tao possesses illumination, and the Sage inherits and enacts it.
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "圣人善救人物，是谓袭明大道" — "The Sage being skilled at saving people and things — this is called inheriting the illumination of the great Tao."
Translation: This is what is called deeply layered illumination.
Analysis: Here "袭" takes the meaning of "to layer" or "to cover over." The light is wrapped layer upon layer, buried deep — the truer the wisdom, the less it shows on the surface. This reading emphasizes the depth of "illumination" (明): it is not a superficial gleam but an insight enclosed in the innermost layers.
Similar views: This is akin to Zhuangzi's notion of "using darkness to attain illumination" (用晦而明), and Chapter 4: "和其光，同其尘" — "Soften its light and merge with its dust."
Translation: Therefore the good person is the teacher of the bad; the bad person is the object lesson of the good.
Analysis: The most widely accepted interpretation. The conduct of the good person serves as a model for the bad to emulate, and the failings of the bad person serve as a mirror by which the good may guard against error. This sentence underscores the complementary relationship between good and bad — the two exist in mutual dependence, and neither can be dispensed with. This embodies the dialectical thought of Chapter 2: "有无相生、难易相成" — "Being and non-being give rise to each other; difficulty and ease complete each other."
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "人之行善者，圣人即以为人师" — "Those who practice goodness — the Sage takes them as teachers for the people."
Translation: Therefore the person who has attained the Tao (道) is the teacher of the one who has not; the one who has not attained the Tao is the object from which the person of the Tao takes instruction.
Analysis: Wang Bi's commentary: "善人以善齐不善，以善弃不善，故不善人善人之所取也" — "The good person uses goodness to bring the bad into alignment, and uses goodness to leave behind what is not good; therefore the bad person is the material that the good person draws upon." Here "资" takes the meaning of "to draw upon." The good person draws upon the experience and lessons of the bad to perfect himself, while at the same time using goodness to transform the bad. This reading emphasizes greater agency and transformative power: it is not merely passive mirroring, but active appropriation and reform.
Similar views: Wang Bi: "资，取也。善人以善齐不善，以善弃不善，故不善人善人之所取也" — "'资' means 'to draw upon.' The good person uses goodness to bring the bad into alignment and to leave behind what is not good; therefore the bad person is the material that the good person draws upon."
Translation: Not to esteem one's teacher, not to cherish one's object lesson — though one may consider oneself clever, this is in truth great delusion. This is the essential and subtle principle.
Analysis: The most mainstream interpretation. "Not to esteem one's teacher, not to cherish one's object lesson" is a critical, admonitory negation: if one does not respect the good person (teacher) and does not value the lessons furnished by the bad person (object lesson), then even if one appears clever on the surface, one is in reality fundamentally confused. "This is the essential and subtle principle" is the summation of this double lesson — only by understanding that good and bad serve as each other's teacher and resource does one grasp the truly essential mystery. Heshang Gong: "虽自以为智，言此人乃大迷惑" — "Though he considers himself wise, such a person is in fact greatly deluded."
Similar views: Heshang Gong: "虽自以为智。言此人乃大迷惑" — "Though he considers himself wise — one says this person is in fact greatly deluded." "能通此意，是谓知微妙要道也" — "To penetrate this meaning is to know the subtle and essential Way."
Translation: Not to esteem one's teacher, not to treasure one's object lesson — even if one possesses wisdom, one is bound to fall into great delusion. Herein lies the essential mystery.
Analysis: Wang Bi's commentary: "虽有其智，自任其智，不因物，于其道必失。故曰，虽智大迷" — "Though one possesses intelligence, if one relies on one's own intelligence and does not accord with things, one is certain to lose the Way. Hence it is said, 'though wise, greatly deluded.'" The key lies in "relying on one's own intelligence and not according with things": presuming upon one's cleverness and failing to follow the nature of things leads inevitably to failure on the Way. This reading elevates "great delusion" to the philosophical plane: the deepest kind of delusion is not ignorance but the illusion of knowing. Being intelligent yet not according with things — this is the most fundamental form of delusion.
Similar views: Wang Bi: "虽有其智，自任其智，不因物，于其道必失。故曰，虽智大迷" — "Though one possesses intelligence, if one relies on one's own intelligence and does not accord with things, one is certain to lose the Way. Hence it is said, 'though wise, greatly deluded.'"
Translation: Not placing too much importance on one's teacher, not clinging to one's object lesson — though this may seem like confusion, it is in truth the essential mystery.
Analysis: This reading takes "not to esteem one's teacher, not to cherish one's object lesson" as a positive rather than a negative stance: not deliberately revering, not deliberately treasuring — everything arising from naturalness, with no attachment to the distinction between teacher and resource. "Though wise, greatly deluded" is the common person's judgment (the world may think this is great foolishness), but this is precisely the "essential mystery" — to transcend the duality of good and bad, to go beyond the dichotomy of teacher and resource, is the deepest truth. This reading is closer in spirit to Zhuangzi's "Equalization of Things."
Similar views: The thought of the "Equalization of Things" (齐物论) in the Zhuangzi. This also echoes the transcendent question in Chapter 2: "善之与恶，相去若何" — "How far apart are good and evil?"
This chapter contains 22 interpretation combinations.
[Core Divergences]
Chapter 27 is one of the most complete expositions of the "methodology of non-action" (无为) in the Tao Te Ching. The chapter unfolds in three progressively deepening layers: (1) The five "one who is skilled at…" parallel statements (traveling, speaking, reckoning, closing, binding) demonstrate the concrete manifestations of non-action — the most consummate way of doing things does not rely on external tools but follows the inherent nature of things; (2) "No one is abandoned, nothing is wasted" elevates the methodology of non-action into a theory of value — in the Sage's vision, there is no useless person or useless thing in the world; everything has its proper place and worth; (3) "The good person is the teacher" and "the bad person is the resource," together with "not to esteem one's teacher, not to cherish one's resource," push the discussion to its philosophical core — the dialectical relationship between good and bad. The divergence between Wang Bi and Heshang Gong centers mainly on this: Wang Bi emphasizes the ontological principle of "acting in accordance with the nature of things" (因物之性) — following the natural endowment of things and not using external forms to control them — while Heshang Gong leans toward the practice of self-cultivation (practicing the Tao within oneself, closing off desires to preserve the spirit). The most thought-provoking passage is the closing line, "though wise, greatly deluded — herein lies the essential mystery" (虽智大迷，是谓要妙). This is either a stern rebuke of those who fail to honor their teachers (the mainstream view) or a hint at transcending all discriminating thought (the novel view), and the very existence of this interpretive divergence itself embodies the polysemy and profundity of Laozi's text.